Partition Pact between India and Pakistan, 1947

 

Partition Pact between India and Pakistan (1947)

The Partition of British India in 1947, leading to the creation of India and Pakistan, was one of the most significant and tragic events in South Asian history. The legal and political framework for this was laid down in what is formally known as the Indian Independence Act of 1947, passed by the British Parliament. However, what is often referred to as the “Partition Pact” refers more broadly to the understanding, agreements, and obligations that were shaped through various negotiations involving the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the British Government.

Legal Foundation: Indian Independence Act, 1947

Passed on 18 July 1947, this Act:

·         Provided for the end of British rule in India by 15 August 1947.

·         Created two new dominions: India and Pakistan.

·         Allowed the provinces to choose which dominion to join.

·         Allowed princely states to accede to either dominion or remain independent.

·         Terminated British suzerainty over princely states.

Terms and Conditions of the Partition Pact

Although there was no single formal "Pact", the following key terms and conditions governed the partition:

a. Division of British India

·         India was divided into two sovereign nations: India and Pakistan.

·         Pakistan was to consist of two non-contiguous regions: East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (modern Pakistan).

·         The Radcliffe Line was created to demarcate the borders in Punjab and Bengal.

b. Division of Assets

The division of assets between India and Pakistan in 1947 was one of the most complex and contentious issues arising from the Partition. These assets included financial reserves, military infrastructure, defense personnel, ordnance, and administrative machinery.

Financial Division of Assets

Total Cash Reserves of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

·         Total cash reserves of Rs. 4,000 crore (approx. USD 3 billion in 1947).

·         Pakistan's agreed share: Rs. 750 million (Rs. 75 crore) or 17% of the total.

·         This amount was determined based on population ratio and other administrative considerations.

Payments Timeline:

·         Initial payment: Rs. 200 million (Rs. 20 crore) was transferred immediately in August 1947.

·         Balance amount: Rs. 550 million (Rs. 55 crore) was withheld by India due to:

Ø  The Kashmir conflict (October 1947), as Pakistani tribal forces had invaded the princely state.

Ø  Indian leadership (including Home Minister Sardar Patel) opposed the payment, fearing funds would be used for war efforts.

Resolution of the Crisis:

·         Mahatma Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in January 1948 demanding India honor the agreement.

·         Under public and moral pressure, Prime Minister Nehru authorized the transfer of the remaining Rs. 55 crore on 15 January 1948.

·         Tragically, Gandhi was assassinated ten days later on 30 January 1948, partly due to this decision.

c. Division of Military and Defense Forces

Structure Before Partition

·         British Indian Army: One of the largest volunteer armies during World War II.

·         Total personnel strength before Partition: approximately 410,000 active soldiers.

·         Commanded by British officers under the British Crown.

Division Plan:

The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee under Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck managed the division.

Division Ratio:

·         India: 2/3 of the armed forces

·         Pakistan: 1/3 of the armed forces

Army Division

Component	India	Pakistan
Personnel	Approx. 260,000	Approx. 150,000
Infantry battalions	21	08
Artillery units	40	16
Armored regiments	10	03
Training centers	Majority in India	Few in Pakistan
Ammunition depots	Most in India	Limited handed to Pakistan

 

Navy Division:

At Partition, the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) had 33 ships, several shore establishments, and thousands of personnel.

Component	India	Pakistan
Ships	25	8
Officers	Majority	Fewer (Many were British loaned officers initially)

 

Pakistan Navy was newly formed as the Royal Pakistan Navy (RPN) on 14 August 1947.

Air Force Division:

The Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) had more than 1,200 aircraft (mostly WWII-era).

Component	India	Pakistan
Aircraft (approx.)	930+	240+
Operational squadrons	7	2
Airbases	Majority in India	Only a few in Pakistan

 

d. Ordnance and Ammunition

The Indian Ordnance Factories, located primarily in India, were not shared with Pakistan.

Distribution:

·         Pakistan received limited stocks of arms and ammunition from Indian depots.

·         Arms supplied were largely surplus WWII stocks.

·         Training institutions and ordnance production facilities were almost entirely located in India, which gave India a logistical advantage.

e. Administrative and Civil Services Division

·         Indian Civil Service (ICS) was also divided.

·         Out of over 1,000 ICS officers, 95 chose Pakistan, while the rest remained in India.

·         British officers temporarily served in both nations to aid transition.

·         Pakistan faced a shortage of trained civil servants and administrators, complicating governance.

f. Referendums and Accession

·         In some areas, referendums were held to decide accession:

Ø  North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) voted to join Pakistan.

Ø  Sylhet (in Assam) voted to join East Pakistan.

·         Princely states had the right to accede to India or Pakistan or remain independent, but in practice, they were pressured to choose one.

Obligations and Roles of Key Leaders

A. Indian Leaders (Indian National Congress)

Key Figures: Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Azad etc.

·         Committed to a peaceful transfer of power and maintaining secularism.

·         Worked to integrate princely states into the Indian Union.

·         Agreed to the partition as a last resort to avoid civil war.

·         Ensured safe passage and rehabilitation for refugees.

Notable Action:

·         Gandhi’s fasting and insistence on releasing Pakistan’s funds was seen as an ethical obligation to fulfill commitments.

B. Pakistani Leaders (All-India Muslim League)

Key Figures: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan

·         Demanded a separate nation for Muslims to safeguard religious and political rights.

·         Pressed for equitable division of resources, territory, and assets.

·         Faced the challenge of building a state from scratch with inadequate infrastructure.

·         Ensured safe migration for Muslims from India to Pakistan.

Notable Quote (Jinnah, 11 August 1947):

"You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques... You may belong to any religion or caste or creed—that has nothing to do with the business of the State."

British Government

Key Figures: Lord Louis Mountbatten (last Viceroy), Prime Minister Clement Attlee

·         Passed the Indian Independence Act.

·         Oversaw the transfer of power and boundary demarcation.

·         Appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to draw borders within five weeks—leading to disputes and bloodshed.

·         Promised neutrality but was often accused of bias (both sides made such accusations).

Criticism:

·         Poor management of migration and law and order.

·         Hasty withdrawal led to mass violence, with over a million dead and 15 million displaced.

Aftermath and Unresolved Issues

·         Kashmir remained a disputed territory, leading to the first India-Pakistan war (1947–1948).

·         Communal violence in Punjab and Bengal caused massive loss of life and property.

·         The refugee crisis defined early domestic policies of both nations.

·         The division sowed seeds of enduring hostility and multiple wars between the two countries.

References

1.      Indian Independence Act 1947 (UK Parliament Archive) – https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1947/30/enacted

2.      Wolpert, Stanley. Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press, 1984.

3.      Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy. HarperCollins, 2007.

4.      Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press, 1985.

5.      Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. Yale University Press, 2007.

6.      BBC Archive: “Partition of India: 1947” – https://www.bbc.com/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml

7.      Brown, Judith M. Nehru: A Political Life. Yale University Press, 2003.

8.      Metcalf, Barbara D. and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

9.      Lamb, Alastair. Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846–1990. Oxford University Press.

10.  Mansergh, Nicholas (ed.). The Transfer of Power 1942–47, Vol. XII.

11.  Noorani, A.G. The Kashmir Dispute 1947–2012. Tulika Books.

12.  UK National Archives: Auchinleck Papers and Military Reconstitution Reports

13.  Ministry of Defence (India and Pakistan) Historical Records

Ramachandra Guha’s approach to the Partition of India

Here is a brief summary of his approach:

1.      Moderate and Secular Viewpoint: Guha adopts a secular and liberal lens, often highlighting how Partition was a tragedy for all communities—Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. He avoids communal blame and instead focuses on the broader historical, political, and social forces.

2.      Emphasis on Human Suffering: He underscores the human cost of Partition—violence, displacement, and trauma—rather than just political negotiations and elite narratives.

3.      Critique of Nationalist Leaders: While respectful of major figures like Gandhi, Nehru, and Jinnah, Guha critically examines their roles and decisions that led to Partition. He often critiques the failure of the Congress and Muslim League to find a workable compromise.

4.      Focus on Diversity and Pluralism: Guha laments the loss of India’s pluralistic ethos due to Partition and is critical of the rise of religious nationalism that both led to and followed the event.

5.      Use of a Wide Range of Sources: As a historian, Guha draws from archival records, personal memoirs, newspaper articles, and scholarly works, making his analysis richly documented and accessible to a broad audience.

In sum, Guha presents Partition not as an inevitable event, but as a deeply tragic and avoidable rupture, shaped by political failure and marked by immense human suffering.

 

 

Yasmin Khan’s approach in The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. Here is a brief summary:

1.      Focus on the Grassroots Impact: Khan shifts the focus from elite political leaders to the experiences of ordinary people—villagers, refugees, and low-level bureaucrats—emphasizing the widespread confusion, fear, and violence that accompanied Partition.

2.      Partition as a Process, Not an Event: She argues that Partition was not a singular, fixed moment in 1947, but a prolonged and chaotic process with long-lasting consequences that continued for years afterward.

3.      Critique of Colonial Policies: Khan highlights the role of British colonial policies and hasty withdrawal in exacerbating the violence and disorder. She portrays the British as more concerned with managing a quick exit than ensuring a peaceful transition.

4.      Challenging Nationalist Narratives: Her work critiques the sanitized or triumphalist narratives often found in Indian and Pakistani historiographies, instead portraying Partition as a deeply disruptive and violent experience.

5.      Use of Diverse Sources: Khan employs a wide range of sources—official documents, personal testimonies, newspapers, and oral histories—offering a multi-layered understanding of Partition.

In essence, Khan's approach is critical and humanistic, emphasizing the complexity, contingency, and tragic consequences of Partition beyond high politics.

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