The Forgotten Dharma: Causes Behind Buddhism’s Disappearance from India!

 

            Introduction

Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th century BCE in India, once flourished across the Indian subcontinent. It inspired kings, shaped art and architecture, and spread to vast parts of Asia. However, despite its Indian origin and early prominence, Buddhism gradually declined in India by the end of the 12th century. This phenomenon — often described as the "retreat" or "step back" of Buddhism from its homeland — is a complex historical process with socio-political, economic, religious, and cultural dimensions.

This article explores the evolution of Buddhism in India, its zenith, and the causes of its decline, leading to its near disappearance from mainstream Indian society.

1. Origins and Early Growth of Buddhism (6th Century BCE – 3rd Century BCE):

Historical Background: India in the 6th Century BCE

The 6th century BCE was a period of profound intellectual and social ferment in the Indian subcontinent. This era witnessed the rise of numerous philosophical traditions collectively known as the Śramaṇa movements, which challenged the orthodox Brahmanical order. The Vedic religion, centered around elaborate rituals, sacrifice (yajña), and a rigid caste system, was losing its appeal among many sections of society — especially traders, peasants, and lower castes — who found it inaccessible and exclusionary.

It was in this context that Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, was born in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal) around 563 BCE, into the Shakya clan of Kshatriyas. His upbringing was royal, but he renounced worldly life upon witnessing the realities of old age, sickness, and death — the so-called Four Sights. At the age of 29, he began a spiritual quest, experimenting with extreme asceticism before realizing that neither indulgence nor severe penance led to liberation. This insight led to the formulation of the Middle Path.

The Enlightenment and First Sermon

At the age of 35, after deep meditation under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha attained Enlightenment (Bodhi). He came to be known as the Buddha — "the Enlightened One." He identified the causes of human suffering and the path to liberation through what became known as the Four Noble Truths:

1.      Life is suffering (dukkha).

2.      Suffering is caused by craving (tanha).

3.      Suffering can end (nirodha).

4.      There is a path to the cessation of suffering — the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path included right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration — a practical guide to ethical living and spiritual growth.

His first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered in Sarnath to his five former companions. This event marks the beginning of the Buddhist Sangha (monastic community).

Core Principles and Appeal

Buddhism's emphasis on equality, rationality, and individual liberation attracted many followers. The rejection of caste-based hierarchy, ritualism, and priestly mediation found resonance among:

·         Lower castes and untouchables who were excluded from Vedic rituals.

·         Merchants and traders, especially in urban centers, who appreciated the moral discipline without Brahmanical dominance.

·         Women, who were allowed to join the order as nuns (bhikkhunis).

The Vinaya Pitaka (monastic code), Sutta Pitaka (sermons), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy) formed the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) — the core scriptural canon, initially preserved orally and written down centuries later in Pali.

Early Expansion of Buddhism

From the Gangetic plain, Buddhism spread to regions like Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti, supported by local rulers. Notably, King Bimbisara of Magadha and his successors were among the early patrons. The Sangha grew in number, with monks and nuns establishing viharas (monasteries) and preaching the Dhamma.

Missionary zeal characterized the early Sangha, which focused on peaceful persuasion, debate, and ethical example. Buddhism's portable message allowed it to adapt across regions, unlike the Vedic religion that required specific rituals and caste-based qualifications.

Councils and Consolidation

After the Buddha’s parinirvana (death) around 483 BCE, the need to preserve his teachings and ensure unity among the followers led to the convening of Buddhist Councils:

·         First Council (Rajgir): Convened by Mahakassapa to codify the Buddha’s teachings orally.

·         Second Council (Vaishali): Held around 100 years later to resolve monastic discipline disputes, leading to the first schism between Sthaviravadins (elders) and Mahasanghikas.

This period laid the foundations for the emergence of different schools of thought within Buddhism, although the divisions were still manageable and not overtly sectarian.

2. The Golden Period of Buddhism in India (3rd Century BCE – 7th Century CE)

Ashoka the Great and State Patronage

The Golden Age of Buddhism began under Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire (reigned c. 268–232 BCE). After the brutal Kalinga War, Ashoka underwent a moral transformation and embraced Buddhism. His Dhamma policy, grounded in Buddhist ethics, promoted compassion, non-violence, and tolerance.

Ashoka’s contribution to Buddhism’s growth was unprecedented:

·         He built stupas and monasteries across his empire.

·         Pillars and rock edicts inscribed with Buddhist messages were erected, spreading moral teachings.

·         He sent missionaries to Sri Lanka (his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta), Central Asia, and the Hellenistic world.

Buddhism thus became a state-supported religion, boosting its legitimacy and reach.

Institutional and Monastic Expansion

Buddhist monasticism expanded rapidly during this period. Monks and nuns lived in well-endowed viharas, engaging in study, meditation, and community teaching. Monasteries became educational centers, offering instruction in philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and logic.

Buddhism became a prominent feature of urban culture. Cities like Sarnath, Rajgir, Vaishali, and Kushinagar flourished as spiritual hubs. Wealthy patrons, including merchants and guilds, contributed to the construction of chaityas (prayer halls) and stupas, such as:

·         Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)

·         Amaravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh)

·         Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism

Between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged as a major branch. It introduced:

·         The concept of Bodhisattvas — enlightened beings who delay nirvana to help others.

·         Greater emphasis on devotion, rituals, and icon worship.

·         New scriptures like the Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra, and Prajnaparamita Sutras.

Mahayana appealed to the masses by offering a more emotional and accessible path to salvation. The abstract and idealistic nature of its teachings also enriched Buddhist metaphysics.

The Kushana and Gupta Periods

Under Kanishka (2nd century CE) of the Kushan dynasty, Mahayana Buddhism gained imperial backing. He convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, and supported Buddhist scholars like Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna.

The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE), though primarily Hindu, tolerated and sometimes supported Buddhism. This period witnessed a fusion of Buddhist and Hindu iconography, especially in art and architecture.

Ajanta Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, were created during this time, showcasing exquisite frescoes of Jataka tales, Bodhisattvas, and scenes from Buddha’s life.

Buddhist Universities and Global Influence

From the 5th to 7th centuries CE, India became the epicenter of global Buddhist scholarship, centered around:

·         Nalanda Mahavihara (Bihar): Possibly the world’s first residential university. It hosted thousands of students and teachers from India, China, Korea, and Tibet.

·         Vikramashila and Odantapuri: Other major learning centers established in Eastern India.

Famous travelers like Faxian (5th century) and Xuanzang (7th century) from China documented the vibrancy of Indian Buddhism, monastic discipline, and scholarly pursuits.

Spread Beyond India

During this era, Buddhism expanded dramatically across Asia:

·         To China, where Mahayana schools developed unique characteristics.

·         To Korea and Japan, where it blended with native traditions.

·         To Tibet, where Vajrayana Buddhism emerged.

·         To Southeast Asia, where Theravāda Buddhism (derived from older schools) took root in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand.

India became both the spiritual and academic heart of the Buddhist world during this golden age.

 

3. Causes of the Decline of Buddhism in India

Despite its initial success and international spread, Buddhism began to decline in India after the 7th century CE. This decline was not due to a single factor, but rather a combination of internal weaknesses and external assaults. The major causes are elaborated below: -

3.1 Revival and Reform of Hinduism

One of the primary and most enduring causes of the decline of Buddhism in India was the revival and strategic reform of Hinduism. After centuries of Buddhist prominence, especially from the time of Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) through the early centuries CE, Hinduism began a process of religious, philosophical, and cultural transformation that allowed it to reassert dominance in the Indian subcontinent. This revival was not just a reactive counter to Buddhism but a comprehensive reconfiguration that absorbed many of Buddhism’s strengths while addressing its own weaknesses.

The Post-Mauryan Hindu Revival

The decline of the Mauryan Empire, which had been a major patron of Buddhism, opened the door for regional Hindu dynasties to regain religious and cultural influence. By the time of the Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE), Hinduism was not only reestablishing itself but also evolving in new and dynamic ways. The Guptas, though tolerant of Buddhism, favored Brahmanical Hinduism in their religious patronage, literature, and art. This period marked a Renaissance of Hindu thought, driven by intellectuals, sages, and religious movements that creatively responded to the Buddhist challenge.

Philosophical Counterattack

One of the most powerful tools in the revival of Hinduism was its philosophical renewal, especially the development and consolidation of schools of Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa. Among these, Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE) played a pivotal role. Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta offered a sophisticated metaphysical response to Buddhist ideas of non-self (Anatta) and emptiness (Shunyata). Where Buddhism emphasized the impermanence and illusion of the self, Shankara affirmed the oneness of Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal consciousness). He critiqued Buddhist logic as nihilistic and lacking a stable foundation for morality and spiritual realization.

Through organized debates (Shastrarthas), scholarly commentaries, and spiritual outreach, Advaita Vedanta reclaimed intellectual supremacy in regions previously influenced by Buddhist metaphysics. Shankara also established mathas (monastic centers) across India to institutionalize and propagate Hindu philosophy — a method directly inspired by the Buddhist Sangha model.

Ritual, Bhakti, and Emotional Devotion

One of the reasons for Buddhism’s appeal to common people had been its rejection of elaborate Vedic rituals and its focus on ethics and meditation. However, by the early medieval period, Hinduism had adapted itself by introducing more accessible and emotionally resonant forms of worship. This was most visible in the Bhakti Movement, which began in the south (Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) and later spread northward.

Bhakti offered a deeply personal form of devotion toward deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, and Devi, without strict reliance on caste-based priestly mediation. The Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) composed devotional poetry in local languages, singing about love, surrender, and moral transformation. This gave people — including women, lower castes, and non-Brahmins — a strong emotional connection to the divine, something that the austere and monastic structure of Buddhism did not always provide.

Absorption of Buddhist Elements

Another subtle but effective strategy employed by Hinduism was the absorption of Buddhist symbols, ideas, and figures. The Buddha himself was transformed from a revolutionary sage into an avatar of Vishnu, as documented in texts like the Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana. This re-contextualization reduced the need for people to follow a separate religious tradition to venerate the Buddha.

Moreover, concepts such as ahimsa (non-violence), karma, rebirth, and dana (charity) — originally emphasized by Buddhism — were now fully integrated into Hindu practice and belief systems. Hindu monasteries and temples began offering free food, education, and shelter, functions that had long been Buddhist strengths.

The incorporation of stupas, meditation, and iconography into Hindu temple architecture also blurred religious lines. Over time, ordinary people began identifying these practices as part of Hinduism, not as unique contributions of Buddhism.

Decline of Distinction in the Public Mind

As Hinduism reformed and expanded, the distinctions between it and Buddhism began to fade for the average person. Both traditions taught about karma and liberation (moksha/nirvana), practiced non-violence, and revered asceticism. Without clear institutional or doctrinal differentiation — especially as Buddhist philosophy became more esoteric and monastic — the general population gravitated toward the more flexible and community-oriented practices of reformed Hinduism.

Moreover, as Buddhist monks became increasingly isolated in monasteries, Hindu gurus and saints became more visible in society, guiding the public through pilgrimages, festivals, village gatherings, and local rituals. This visibility gave Hinduism a grassroots appeal that Buddhism, in its monastic form, could not match in the long run.

Caste System and Social Order

One key differentiator between Buddhism and Hinduism had always been the Buddhist rejection of caste. However, by the early medieval period, Hinduism reasserted the caste hierarchy as a cornerstone of its social and religious order. The Dharmaśāstra texts and Puranas legitimized this structure, which was increasingly institutionalized through temple endowments, royal edicts, and land grants to Brahmins.

This did lead to social rigidity, but ironically, it also created stability in rural societies. Buddhist monks did not challenge this system effectively, and their aloofness from caste-based social organization made them appear irrelevant to daily social dynamics. Hindu reformers, on the other hand, used caste to organize labor, taxation, festivals, and even temple access — all of which integrated religion with society more comprehensively.

Art, Architecture, and Cultural Dominance

From the Gupta period onward, there was a renaissance in Hindu temple architecture and sculpture, funded by royal dynasties and local chieftains. Massive temples with intricate iconography, towering gopurams (gateways), and sacred dance and music traditions began to flourish. The visual and aesthetic appeal of Hindu worship spaces was overwhelming compared to the more modest, monastic layouts of Buddhist viharas.

Moreover, Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, along with the Puranas, were promoted through plays, recitations, and village dramas, ensuring cultural saturation. These narratives were deeply relatable and infused moral, emotional, and metaphysical teachings in accessible language.

Buddhism, by contrast, lacked such a compelling narrative apparatus in its later stages and relied more on abstract teachings and metaphysical sutras, which were beyond the grasp of commoners.

The revival and reform of Hinduism was not merely a theological or philosophical movement but a comprehensive socio-religious transformation. By reformulating its doctrines, incorporating Buddhist elements, engaging with local culture, and adapting to the emotional and ritual needs of people, Hinduism successfully regained dominance. This reform-oriented Hinduism not only drew people away from Buddhism but also absorbed its best features, making Buddhism redundant to many Indians. In this way, the Buddhist tradition that had once challenged Vedic orthodoxy was gradually enveloped, neutralized, and replaced — not by force, but by a more resilient and adaptive cultural system.

3.2 Decline of Royal Patronage

The flourishing of Buddhism in ancient India was deeply tied to the support it received from monarchs and regional rulers. From the time of Emperor Ashoka to the reign of Kanishka and beyond, state patronage ensured the construction of monasteries, the spread of Buddhist teachings, and the financial stability of the Sangha (monastic order). However, over time, the withdrawal of royal patronage significantly weakened Buddhism's institutional framework. This absence of state support, and the gradual shift in allegiance to Brahmanical Hinduism, proved to be one of the most significant causes of Buddhism’s decline in its land of origin.

Ashoka’s Legacy and the Buddhist State Model

The relationship between the Buddhist Sangha and political authority was first significantly institutionalized during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE) of the Maurya dynasty. After the Kalinga War, Ashoka embraced Buddhism and used his authority to promote Dhamma — a moral code rooted in Buddhist principles. He sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, constructed thousands of stupas, and provided generous patronage to monks and monasteries.

This model of state-Buddhism created a precedent that would influence future rulers. Ashoka's centralized governance and the alignment of Buddhism with political authority created a system where the fate of Buddhism became inextricably linked to the whims of the ruling class.

Post-Mauryan Support: The Kushanas and Others

The legacy of Ashoka’s patronage continued under Kanishka the Great (c. 2nd century CE) of the Kushana dynasty, a powerful patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Under Kanishka’s rule, the Fourth Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir, and the spread of Mahayana philosophy gained momentum. Monasteries received land grants, and Buddhist art and iconography thrived, especially in Gandhara and Mathura schools.

Other regional powers like the Satavahanas, Ikshvakus, and Vakatakas also extended their support to Buddhism. They contributed to the building of caves, viharas (monasteries), and stupas across the Deccan and South India. The famous Ajanta and Ellora caves bear testimony to this support.

Shift Under the Guptas

A pivotal moment came with the rise of the Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE). Although initially tolerant of all religions, the Gupta rulers — particularly Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II — were ardent supporters of Brahmanical Hinduism. They revived Vedic practices, built temples dedicated to Hindu deities, and re-established the supremacy of Brahmins in religious life.

While Buddhism was not persecuted under the Guptas, it was marginalized in state policy. Royal grants and endowments that had earlier gone to Buddhist institutions were now directed toward Hindu temples and educational institutions. The Guptas set a trend followed by other dynasties: favoring Brahmins and temple-based Hinduism over monastic Buddhism.

This shift marked the beginning of the systematic economic and political alienation of Buddhist institutions.

Rise of Hindu Temple Economy

The rise of Hindu temple complexes, especially during the medieval period, created a new religious economy. Temples were no longer just places of worship; they became centers of administration, education, and economic exchange. Land grants (called agraharas) were given to Brahmins to manage temple lands, with revenues supporting priests, scholars, and artists.

In contrast, Buddhist monasteries, which had once been dominant centers of learning and charity, struggled to compete. The lack of patronage led to dwindling funds for monks, limited maintenance of infrastructure, and reduced capacity to attract students.

The absence of royal backing also meant that Buddhist institutions lost political legitimacy. Rulers often determined which religious group received public trust and resources. As kings began favoring Hinduism, society followed suit.

Rise of Regional Dynasties and Hindu Orthodoxy

After the fall of the Guptas, India saw the emergence of regional powers — the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and later the Cholas and Rajputs. Most of these dynasties were either followers of Shaivism or Vaishnavism. Their support for Hindu institutions further marginalized Buddhism.

For example:

·         The Pallavas constructed monumental Hindu temples at Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram.

·         The Cholas built grand temples like the Brihadeeswarar Temple and became patrons of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta.

·         The Rajputs, fiercely devoted to Hindu deities, offered no room for Buddhist resurgence in the north-west.

Although Buddhist remnants survived in some pockets like Bengal, Orissa, and Kashmir, these were increasingly isolated.

Land Grants and Economic Shifts

Land was the most important economic resource in pre-modern India. The gradual transfer of land to Hindu Brahmins and temples left Buddhist institutions financially paralyzed. The Sangha, which had depended on royal endowments and public charity, could not compete with the temple-centered economy of Hinduism that came with agrarian revenue, artisanship, and village ties.

With the rise of feudalism, land ownership became a symbol of political allegiance. Brahmins became local lords, acting as both religious leaders and economic administrators. Buddhist monks, who traditionally avoided material involvement, were sidelined in this new economic order.

Diminishing Political Relevance

Over time, Buddhism also lost its political relevance. Its universalist ideals and renunciatory ethos were less compatible with the feudal, hierarchical, and warrior-based society of medieval India. Kings began to associate statecraft with Hindu dharma, kingship ideals like Rama and Krishna, and patronage of caste-based rituals.

In contrast, the Buddhist model of kingship, which emphasized moral governance and non-violence, seemed too pacifist in a world filled with territorial conflicts and militarized politics. The non-violence doctrine was increasingly viewed as impractical for rulers.

This disconnect between Buddhist ideals and the political necessities of medieval governance further estranged rulers from the Sangha.

Islamic Invasions and the Final Blow

By the time of the Islamic invasions (11th–13th century), Buddhism was already weakened due to the lack of royal support. When invaders like Bakhtiyar Khilji attacked centers like Nalanda and Vikramashila, there was no political will to protect them.

Hindu temples, despite also facing destruction, often had royal backing and were rebuilt by successive dynasties. Buddhist monasteries, however, had no such benefactors. Without kings to defend their institutions, Buddhist centers were annihilated — a culmination of centuries of political indifference.

The decline of royal patronage was not merely a withdrawal of economic support — it was a withdrawal of institutional legitimacy, political protection, and cultural capital. Without kings to protect, fund, or legitimize the Sangha, Buddhist monasticism slowly decayed. In a polity where religion and statecraft were deeply intertwined, Buddhism’s retreat from royal courts translated into its disappearance from the public consciousness. As kings turned toward Brahmanical Hinduism and temple-based traditions, Buddhism, lacking political champions, withered away — a peaceful philosophy undone by the realities of power.

3.3 Institutional Decay and Internal Corruption

While external factors like the revival of Hinduism and loss of royal patronage were instrumental in Buddhism’s decline in India, it’s equally critical to examine the internal deterioration of Buddhist institutions. By the early medieval period, the once-thriving monastic communities, known as Sanghas, were increasingly plagued by institutional stagnation, moral decay, ritualistic formalism, and intellectual isolation. These internal weaknesses alienated the lay population, made the religion vulnerable to external shocks, and prevented it from adapting to a changing socio-political environment.

The Early Strength of the Sangha

At its inception, the Buddhist Sangha was a model of ethical discipline, community living, and intellectual vibrancy. Founded by Gautama Buddha himself, the Sangha was open to all, regardless of caste or gender, and committed to the Vinaya rules, which emphasized non-possession, celibacy, humility, and meditative insight.

During the early centuries, the Sangha played a revolutionary role in challenging Brahmanical orthodoxy, promoting education, providing social services, and fostering spiritual democracy. Monasteries like Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Odantapuri became famous centers of learning, attracting students from across Asia. These institutions produced brilliant scholars such as Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, and Dignaga.

However, as the Sangha grew in size and accumulated wealth and patronage, it began to lose the very asceticism and humility that had been its foundational virtue.

Accumulation of Wealth and Luxury

One of the first signs of institutional decay was the accumulation of material wealth. As kings and wealthy patrons donated lands, gold, and resources to the Sangha, monasteries became rich landlords. Many monastic complexes evolved into semi-feudal estates, managing agricultural lands and collecting rents from peasants. In the process, monks became entangled in material affairs, violating the core principle of renunciation.

Instead of focusing on spiritual practice and community welfare, a segment of the Sangha indulged in comfort, ritualism, and administrative control. Grand monasteries began to mirror the palaces of kings — adorned with precious artwork, fine food, and even political intrigue. Some monks gained political influence at courts, further distancing themselves from the general populace.

Ritualism and Esotericism

As Buddhism developed over time, especially through Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, it began to adopt increasingly complex and esoteric rituals. This evolution was not inherently negative — Mahayana’s expansive metaphysics and Vajrayana’s tantric symbolism offered new paths to liberation. However, the abstract nature of these practices and their inaccessibility to the common people alienated the lay followers.

Mantras, mudras, mandalas, and elaborate initiations came to dominate spiritual discourse. The Bodhisattva cults, while inspiring in their idealism, also created a theological distance between the monk and the lay devotee. For peasants and commoners seeking moral guidance and simple devotional practices, the Bhakti movements of Hinduism became more appealing alternatives.

Buddhism, once hailed for its simplicity and rationality, had become doctrinally heavy and mystically obscure, often reserved for elite monastics and scholarly elites.

Lack of Reform Movements

In contrast to Hinduism, which periodically rejuvenated itself through saints, reformers, and movements like Bhakti and Shaivism, Buddhism failed to generate grassroots reform within India. There were no strong indigenous leaders who revitalized the Sangha or reconnected it with village life. While Buddhist reformers like Nagarjuna and Atisha existed, they largely engaged in metaphysical debates or carried their teachings to Tibet and Central Asia rather than reviving Indian Buddhism.

The absence of new charismatic figures, relatable to the masses, meant that Buddhism stagnated in both form and message. It became an academic and scholastic tradition — confined to monasteries and detached from popular concerns such as social justice, economic hardship, or cultural identity.

Doctrinal Fragmentation and Sectarianism

Another internal problem was the rise of sectarian divisions. After the Second Buddhist Council (around 4th century BCE), the Buddhist community began to split into various schools — initially Sthavira and Mahāsāṃghika, and later into over 18 different sects, including Mahayana, Hinayana, Vajrayana, Sarvastivada, and Theravada.

While these divisions reflected genuine philosophical diversity, they also created confusion and disunity. Instead of presenting a coherent and unified doctrine to the public, Buddhism became mired in doctrinal disputes, debates over metaphysical minutiae, and schisms within the Sangha.

This lack of unity weakened the Sangha’s collective ability to defend its position, respond to criticisms, or adapt to evolving social conditions.

Disconnect from Lay Followers

Perhaps the most damaging consequence of institutional decay was the growing gap between the monks and the laity. In the Buddha’s time, monks and laypeople were in constant interaction: monks guided, taught, and inspired, while laypeople provided alms and hospitality. But as monasteries became self-sufficient landowners, they no longer depended on the lay community for survival.

This led to physical and emotional detachment. Buddhist monks retreated into remote monasteries or scholastic institutions, focusing on debate and meditation. Meanwhile, the laity, without relatable spiritual guidance, began to look elsewhere — especially toward the inclusive, emotionally expressive, and socially engaged Bhakti saints of Hinduism.

Moral and Ethical Decline

Several ancient texts and inscriptions mention instances of ethical decline within the Sangha. Some monks began violating the Vinaya rules, indulging in luxuries, accumulating private wealth, or engaging in corrupt activities. There were complaints about monks interfering in local politics, abusing their privileges, and even competing with Brahmins for land and donations.

Travelers like the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (7th century CE) observed both the grandeur and the decay of Buddhist institutions in India. While he praised places like Nalanda, he also remarked on the decline in discipline and numbers in many other monasteries.

Isolation from Mass Movements

As social, political, and religious life in India became increasingly dynamic, Buddhist monks remained aloof from major mass movements. While Hindu saints engaged with caste issues, gender roles, and social reform, Buddhist monks were intellectually aloof and socially invisible.

This institutional conservatism meant that Buddhism ceased to be a living force in society. It no longer offered practical guidance for the day-to-day life of the average villager, farmer, or artisan.

Collapse Under Pressure

When external pressures came — such as Islamic invasions, destruction of monasteries, and withdrawal of royal support — the already hollowed-out Buddhist institutions collapsed quickly. Nalanda and Vikramashila, once glorious centers of learning, had become symbolic shells. Without the support of the lay community or internal vigor, they could not be rebuilt or revived.

Unlike Hindu temples that had deep grassroots connections, Buddhist viharas were unable to withstand socio-political shocks, precisely because they had become disconnected from the public and from ethical relevance.

The institutional decay and internal corruption of Buddhism in India was a slow but decisive process. What began as a vibrant, ethical, and revolutionary movement deteriorated into a bureaucratic, scholastic, and isolated monastic tradition. As the Sangha lost its moral credibility, popular relevance, and adaptive capacity, it became increasingly irrelevant to the broader Indian society. When the external blows finally came — whether from Hindu revivalism or foreign invasions — the foundations had already rotted. Thus, the decline of Buddhism was not simply imposed from outside, but seeded from within.

3.4 Invasions and Destruction of Monasteries

The decline of Buddhism in India cannot be fully understood without addressing the violent and systematic destruction of Buddhist institutions during foreign invasions, particularly from the 8th to 13th centuries CE. During this time, a wave of Islamic incursions into northern and eastern India led to the plundering and demolition of the great Buddhist monasteries, which were not only religious centers but also vital hubs of education, art, and international intellectual exchange. These invasions delivered a decisive blow to an already weakened Buddhist tradition, erasing its physical infrastructure and extinguishing its scholarly continuity in the Indian subcontinent.

Buddhist Monasteries: Centers of Knowledge and Culture

Before their destruction, institutions such as Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri, Jagaddala, and Somapura were among the greatest universities in the world. Nalanda, for instance, was home to over 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers, hosting scholars from China, Korea, Tibet, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. These monasteries maintained extensive libraries, preserved Buddhist scriptures, and encouraged rigorous debates in Buddhist philosophy, logic, and medicine.

By the 7th century, Xuanzang and Yijing, Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, documented the sophisticated functioning of these institutions, which enjoyed royal patronage and popular esteem. However, their increasing dependence on state protection, their vast accumulations of wealth, and their architectural prominence also made them targets for invaders.

Early Islamic Incursions and Initial Damage

Islamic expansion into India began with raids by Arab armies in Sindh in the early 8th century. Although these initial invasions were limited, they created a precedent for later incursions. The Buddhist population in Sindh, according to some reports, was treated as a dhimmi community under the new Islamic rule, but many monasteries lost state patronage or were repurposed.

The real damage began with the Turko-Afghan invasions in the 10th and 11th centuries. These invaders did not differentiate between Hindu and Buddhist institutions. Any religious center that held wealth and idol worship was viewed as a legitimate target for plunder. Temples and monasteries were destroyed en masse, manuscripts burned, monks killed or dispersed, and Buddhist learning eradicated at the source.

The Sack of Nalanda and Vikramashila

The most catastrophic event in the history of Indian Buddhism was the invasion by Bakhtiyar Khilji, a military general of the Ghurid Empire, around 1193 CE. As part of his campaign in Bihar and Bengal, Bakhtiyar Khilji sacked the great universities of Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Odantapuri.

According to Tibetan sources like Taranatha’s History of Buddhism in India, Bakhtiyar Khilji set fire to Nalanda’s vast library, burning thousands of palm-leaf manuscripts — some of which were irreplaceable treatises on Buddhist philosophy, astronomy, and medicine. The monks were slaughtered, and the survivors fled to Tibet, Nepal, or went into hiding.

The destruction of Vikramashila, another major Mahayana learning center, had a similarly devastating impact. These attacks marked the intellectual death knell of Indian Buddhism. The extinction of these institutions meant not only the loss of education and scholarship but also the breakdown of the monastic chain of transmission.

Why Buddhist Institutions Were Particularly Vulnerable

Several factors made Buddhist monasteries especially vulnerable during these invasions:

1.      Lack of Political Protection: With the decline of Buddhist-supporting dynasties like the Palas, monasteries lacked strong defenders. Hindu temples, by contrast, often had royal support and local backing, allowing for rebuilding efforts after attacks.

2.      Concentration of Wealth and Artifacts: Buddhist viharas were known to accumulate artistic and ritual wealth over centuries — statues of gold and bronze, relics, scrolls, and decorative artifacts. This made them attractive targets for loot.

3.      Non-Violent Monastic Ideals: Monks were typically pacifists who renounced arms. Unlike Hindu temples that were often embedded in village fortifications or supported by warrior clans, Buddhist monasteries lacked any military protection or defensive mechanisms.

4.      Geographical Isolation: Many viharas, especially in eastern India (Bihar and Bengal), were located in relatively isolated areas, far from the new political centers of Delhi and Lahore. This made mobilizing defense impossible.

Aftermath and Monastic Disintegration

Following the invasions, the monastic infrastructure of Buddhism in India lay in ruins. The destruction was not only physical but also symbolic: it marked the end of Buddhism as a mainstream intellectual and spiritual tradition in India.

The monks who survived were either killed, converted, or fled. Many went to Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia, carrying whatever scriptures they could save. This diaspora helped preserve Buddhist teachings elsewhere, especially in Tibet, where the Nalanda-Vikramashila tradition continued through figures like Atisha Dipankara.

However, in India, monasteries were not rebuilt, as neither Hindu nor Muslim rulers supported their revival. Buddhism ceased to be a public or state-backed institution, and over time, its presence faded entirely from the Gangetic plains.

Islamic Rule and Long-Term Suppression

After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire, Buddhist communities did not find any significant protection. While Akbar (16th century) promoted religious tolerance and even invited Buddhist monks to his court, this was too late and too little — by then, Buddhism was virtually extinct in northern India.

Moreover, Islamic religious orthodoxy did not encourage Buddhist practice. In the broader Islamic worldview, idol worship and monastic celibacy were often viewed with suspicion or hostility. As such, the cultural and political space needed for Buddhism to recover did not exist.

Comparison with Hinduism’s Survival

While Hindu temples also suffered destruction during the invasions, Hinduism survived and even revived during and after Islamic rule. This was due to several reasons:

·         Hinduism was decentralized and community-based. Even if one temple was destroyed, rituals and worship continued at home or in smaller shrines.

·         The Bhakti movement, which emphasized personal devotion and emotional worship, spread widely and kept the spirit of Hinduism alive even without temple structures.

·         Hindu kings in South India, like the Vijayanagara Empire, preserved and promoted Brahmanical traditions in regions untouched by Muslim conquests.

In contrast, Buddhism had become dependent on central institutions and state patronage. Once those were lost, there was no grassroots base left to sustain the tradition.

Cultural Amnesia and Disappearance

By the 14th century, India had almost no living Buddhist traditions. The sacred sites of Buddhism — Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar — were forgotten or neglected. In some cases, they were assimilated into Hindu pilgrimage circuits, and the memory of the Buddha was absorbed into Hindu mythology as an avatar of Vishnu.

For the average Indian, Buddhism was no longer a visible religion. Its temples were gone, its monks had vanished, and its scriptures were preserved only in Tibetan or Pali sources abroad.

The invasions and destruction of Buddhist monasteries were the final, fatal blow to an already declining tradition. The loss of institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila represented not only the obliteration of learning and heritage but also the severance of the spiritual, cultural, and pedagogical continuity of Indian Buddhism.

These invasions did not merely destroy buildings; they extinguished living ecosystems of knowledge, ruptured transnational scholarly networks, and wiped Buddhism off the Indian map for centuries. In the aftermath, Buddhism survived in other lands, but in the land of its birth, it faded into memory.

3.5 Absence of Lay Support and Social Base

While royal patronage, doctrinal vigor, and monastic excellence were vital to the early rise of Buddhism in India, its sustained presence ultimately depended on popular lay support. Unlike religions that had a strong grassroots presence among the common people, Buddhism gradually lost its social base, particularly during the medieval period. As the connection between the Sangha (monastic order) and the lay population weakened, Buddhism became an elite, insular tradition—and eventually, an irrelevant one to everyday Indian life. The erosion of lay support, in effect, removed the foundation upon which Buddhism once stood.

Early Buddhist-Lay Relationship

At its inception, Buddhism was highly inclusive. The Buddha himself engaged with kings, merchants, women, outcastes, and farmers alike. His message of ethical living, mental cultivation, and liberation from suffering was accessible and attractive to all strata of society. The early Sangha depended heavily on the alms and generosity of laypeople, who in turn received spiritual guidance and merit through supporting the monks.

In return, Buddhist monks were expected to offer counsel, teachings, rituals, and blessings to the community. The relationship was symbiotic and reciprocal. This organic connection played a critical role in the rapid expansion of Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent from the 6th century BCE to the early centuries CE.

Gradual Alienation of the Masses

Over time, however, several factors led to the growing detachment of the Sangha from lay communities:

1.      Esoteric Ritualism and Philosophical Abstraction: With the advent of Mahayana and later Vajrayana Buddhism, practices became increasingly complex and centered around philosophical metaphysics, Bodhisattva ideals, tantric rituals, and symbolic meditation. While spiritually profound, these practices were not easily comprehensible or practicable by the average villager or artisan.

2.      Monastic Scholasticism: Major monasteries like Nalanda and Vikramashila evolved into universities focusing more on theoretical debates, linguistic analysis, and doctrinal refinement than community outreach. As monastic life became increasingly academic, it lost its emotional and devotional appeal to common people.

3.      Physical and Social Isolation: Many monasteries were situated in remote locations, away from urban centers or villages. This physical distance reinforced a social and spiritual disconnect between monks and laity.

Comparison with the Bhakti Movement

As Buddhism grew more distant from the masses, the Bhakti movements of Hinduism began to fill the void. Saints like Ramanuja, Kabir, Meera Bai, Tulsidas, and Basava offered simple, emotionally resonant messages: love of God, equality of all beings, and devotion over ritual.

Unlike the increasingly scholastic Buddhism, Bhakti saints spoke in local languages, sang devotional songs, and lived among the people, addressing their daily struggles and caste injustices. Their accessibility and humanism appealed to the emotional and social needs of the lay population. For example, the Bhakti tradition welcomed women, untouchables, and marginalized communities—roles once championed by early Buddhism.

In this comparison, Buddhism appeared abstract, aloof, and ritualistic, while Bhakti offered an experiential and participatory spirituality. This shift in lay allegiance severely undermined Buddhism’s mass appeal.

Role of Caste and Social Integration

While Buddhism originally rejected the caste system, over time its monastic detachment from society limited its ability to confront and reform caste-based inequality in meaningful, organized ways. Monks withdrew from active engagement with the village society, and Buddhist lay followers often retained caste practices despite religious allegiance.

Meanwhile, Hinduism adapted to caste dynamics, with reform movements like Bhakti challenging Brahminical orthodoxy from within. By the time of medieval India, Buddhism offered no strong social movement or mass resistance to re-entrenched caste hierarchy, especially in rural India, where it once thrived.

This lack of grassroots social presence made it increasingly irrelevant in caste-bound village life.

Urban Decline and Loss of Mercantile Support

Buddhism had historically flourished in urban and mercantile environments. Traders, artisans, and city-based professionals supported monastic institutions with generous donations. Cities like Pataliputra, Sarnath, and Ujjain were centers of Buddhist patronage.

However, with the decline of urban centers in the post-Gupta and early medieval periods—due to political fragmentation, foreign invasions, and ruralization of the economy—Buddhist monastic economies were severely affected. The urban middle class that once supported Buddhism shrank, and no equivalent rural patron base was cultivated.

Hinduism, by contrast, retained and expanded its influence in rural areas through temple networks, family rituals, caste institutions, and folk traditions.

Neglect of Popular Religious Needs

Buddhism's failure to adapt to changing emotional and psychological needs of the common people was another reason for the loss of lay support. While Buddhist texts spoke of Nirvana, Sunyata (emptiness), and non-attachment, people sought consolation, community, rituals for life events (birth, death, marriage), and protection from illness or calamity.

Hinduism provided an abundance of mythology, local deities, temple festivals, and social rituals that met these needs. Islam, with its concept of one compassionate God and Sufi devotionalism, also offered emotional solace and community belonging.

Buddhism, rooted in abstraction and renunciation, struggled to offer such immediate emotional and cultural identification to the laity.

Failure to Foster a New Generation of Devotees

One of the consequences of Buddhist institutional decay was the lack of active religious education for the laity. While monks trained within monasteries, the lay community was not effectively engaged or spiritually educated. Religious functions became limited to monks, and over time, even the concept of lay Buddhist identity eroded.

In contrast, Hindu gurus and Muslim Sufi saints actively nurtured followers, wrote vernacular texts, and developed community structures that allowed devotees to participate fully in spiritual life.

Buddhism failed to create a sustainable chain of lay leaders, local guides, and cultural producers who could interpret and carry forward the faith.

Disappearance from the Public Eye

By the 12th and 13th centuries, Buddhism had vanished from public religious life in India. No major festivals, processions, or community gatherings were centered around Buddhist themes. Temple conversion, renaming of pilgrimage sites, and the assimilation of the Buddha into the Hindu pantheon as an avatar of Vishnu all contributed to this invisibility.

Without lay memory, cultural practice, or oral tradition, Buddhism simply faded from the consciousness of the Indian masses.

Tibetan and Foreign Continuities vs. Indian Vacuum

Ironically, as Buddhism declined in India, it was thriving abroad—in Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Southeast Asia. These regions had developed robust lay-monastic systems, localized Buddhist practices, and community-driven temple cultures.

India, however, lacked such continuity. No social force took up the responsibility to preserve and propagate Buddhism among the people after the fall of monastic centers.

The absence of lay support and a strong social base was a critical and self-reinforcing cause of Buddhism’s decline in India. As monastic institutions turned inward, became scholastic, and isolated themselves from society, they lost the trust, interest, and participation of the common people. Without lay engagement, even the grandest monasteries became hollow institutions. And when political protection and economic support dried up, Buddhism had no grassroots strength to survive.

Religion survives not just in texts or temples, but in the hearts and homes of ordinary people. Buddhism, despite its philosophical brilliance, ceased to be a living tradition in Indian society because it forgot to remain relevant, accessible, and emotionally resonant to the very people it once empowered.

3.6 Geographic Shift to Other Countries

One of the most significant but often underappreciated causes of Buddhism’s decline in India is the geographic shift of its intellectual, spiritual, and institutional base to other countries, particularly in Asia. As Buddhism spread and flourished abroad—from Sri Lanka and Myanmar to China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan—it gradually lost its central connection to the Indian subcontinent, the land of its birth. This outward diffusion, while a testament to its universal appeal, eventually decentered India as the heart of Buddhist civilization, contributing to its decay at home.

The Global Expansion of Buddhism

Within a few centuries of the Buddha’s death (circa 5th century BCE), Buddhism began spreading far beyond the Gangetic plains. Emperor Ashoka’s missionary zeal in the 3rd century BCE played a pivotal role in this expansion. Ashoka dispatched emissaries to regions such as Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and the Hellenistic world, where Buddhism began to take root in diverse cultural forms.

Over time, Buddhism underwent local adaptations, developing new schools and ritual forms:

·         In Sri Lanka, Theravāda Buddhism emerged as the dominant tradition.

·         In Central and East Asia, Mahayana and later Vajrayana forms spread rapidly.

·         In China, Buddhism merged with Confucian and Daoist ideas, spawning schools like Chan (Zen).

·         In Tibet, Indian tantric Buddhism was preserved, codified, and continued through the Nalanda-Vikramashila lineage.

This transformation of Buddhism into an international religion brought great prestige to India initially, but as the epicenters of Buddhist activity shifted eastward, India’s role became passive, eventually peripheral.

Monastic Diaspora and the Flight of Scholars

The destruction of Indian monasteries (such as Nalanda and Vikramashila) in the 12th–13th centuries forced monks, scholars, and artists to migrate to safer regions. They carried with them precious texts, teachings, and ritual traditions.

Notable examples include:

·         Atisha Dipankara, a Bengali Buddhist master, who traveled to Tibet in the 11th century and helped reform Tibetan Buddhism.

·         Indian tantric texts like the Guhyasamāja and Hevajra Tantras became foundational to Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism.

This monastic diaspora ensured the survival of Indian Buddhism, but outside India. Once transplanted and institutionalized in foreign lands, these monks did not return. Instead, they rebuilt Buddhism as a thriving force elsewhere, especially in Tibet, Nepal, and East Asia.

Cultural Custodianship Taken Over by Other Nations

As Buddhism evolved in new regions, these cultures became the new custodians of Buddhist heritage. They began producing vast canons of translated scriptures, building monumental temples and stupas, developing distinct artistic styles, and even sending pilgrims to India to retrieve relics or texts.

Examples include:

·         Xuanzang and Yijing, Chinese monks who traveled to India in the 7th century to collect texts and study at Nalanda.

·         Kumārajīva, a Central Asian scholar who translated hundreds of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese.

·         Japanese monks, who later preserved many Sanskrit texts through Chinese translations.

As this trend deepened, India stopped being the main source of Buddhist innovation. The Buddhist world no longer looked to India for spiritual leadership. Ironically, while the world celebrated Buddhism’s Indian origins, India itself was increasingly disconnected from the tradition.

Pilgrimage vs. Practice: Sacred Sites Forgotten at Home

As Buddhism spread abroad, Indian pilgrimage sites remained revered, but mainly by foreign visitors. Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar were still considered holy, but Indians themselves had largely forgotten their significance.

In contrast, foreign Buddhist pilgrims continued to journey to these sites well into the medieval period. Chinese and Tibetan records from as late as the 13th century describe these pilgrimages. Yet the Indian masses were no longer participating in Buddhist worship, and these sacred locations were either abandoned or absorbed into local Hindu traditions.

The Buddha was mythologized as an avatar of Vishnu, and sites such as Bodh Gaya became objects of Hindu ritual. The continuity of religious life around these sites persisted, but not within the Buddhist framework.

Doctrinal Complexity and Local Disconnect

As Buddhism globalized, it also diversified into dozens of sects and schools, each with unique rituals, languages, and metaphysics. While these developments enriched the religion abroad, they made it more complex and fragmented in its Indian base.

By the time Indian Buddhism encountered competition from Bhakti Hinduism and Islam, it was doctrinally rich but socially fragmented, and its practices seemed foreign to the common Indian mind. Mahayana and Vajrayana rituals practiced in Tibet or China had little resemblance to the early Buddhist ethos of simplicity, compassion, and meditation that once drew Indian laypeople.

Thus, as Buddhism became more international and diverse, it became less relatable to the Indian population, who turned to religious movements that spoke directly to their daily lives and concerns.

Lack of Revival Movements from Within

Despite Buddhism’s success abroad, there was no significant revival movement within India until the modern period. Unlike Hinduism, which saw regular reform through Bhakti saints, or Islam, which witnessed Sufi revivalism, Buddhism lacked charismatic indigenous reformers after the 12th century.

Its last major philosophical contributions were made by thinkers like Nagarjuna, Asanga, and Dharmakirti, all before the 8th century. Subsequent philosophical and ritual development happened primarily outside India, especially in Tibet, China, and Japan.

Without reformers or monks to rekindle the flame, and without strong ties to a local populace, Buddhism in India became an archaeological memory rather than a living tradition.

Colonial and Post-Colonial Rediscovery

Ironically, the modern rediscovery of Buddhism in India came through foreign scholarship and colonial archaeology. The British excavations of Sarnath, Nalanda, and Bodh Gaya, along with the translation of Pali texts by European Orientalists, reintroduced India to its Buddhist past.

Figures like Anagarika Dharmapala (from Sri Lanka) and later B. R. Ambedkar (in the 20th century) were crucial in reviving Buddhist identity in India, but this was long after its historical decline.

By then, India was no longer the center of Buddhism—it was a marginal outpost rediscovering its ancient spiritual legacy.

The geographic shift of Buddhism from India to other parts of Asia was a paradoxical phenomenon: it marked both Buddhism’s success and India’s spiritual loss. As Buddhism took root and flourished in distant lands, it left behind a vacuum in its homeland. This shift meant that doctrinal innovation, institutional vitality, and cultural production were all happening elsewhere. India, once the birthplace of the Buddha and the land of enlightenment, had become a forgotten chapter in the Buddhist story.

By the time foreign pilgrims continued arriving to honor the land of the Buddha, Indians had moved on—drawn to other faiths, movements, and realities. The absence of doctrinal connection, lack of social engagement, and physical loss of monastic centers, combined with this geographic shift, ensured that Buddhism would remain a glorious but distant memory in Indian history.

4. Attempts at Revival and Modern Presence of Buddhism in India

Historical Continuity Amidst Decline

Although Buddhism experienced a significant decline in India over the centuries, it never completely disappeared from the subcontinent. Certain regions, particularly in the Himalayan belt such as Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of Northeast India, have maintained Buddhist traditions, largely influenced by Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. These areas were geographically and culturally distinct from the Gangetic plains and the heartlands of Hinduism and Islam, which contributed to the survival of Buddhist monasteries and practices.

Similarly, Theravāda Buddhism, which had flourished in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century BCE due to the missionary efforts of Emperor Ashoka, continued uninterrupted. Through Sri Lankan monks and revivalist exchanges, Theravāda Buddhism found renewed entry into India, particularly in the southern and northeastern regions, during the colonial and post-colonial periods.

The Modern Revival: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Navayana Buddhism

The most significant and symbolic revival of Buddhism in India’s modern history was spearheaded by Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian Constitution and a towering figure in India’s social and political history. Ambedkar’s efforts were not just religious but deeply socio-political and cultural, aimed at combating the entrenched caste discrimination that marginalized millions of Dalits (formerly “untouchables”) within the Hindu social hierarchy.

Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism on October 14, 1956, along with around 400,000 followers, was a historic event that marked the birth of Navayana Buddhism, or “New Vehicle Buddhism.” This form of Buddhism reinterpreted traditional Buddhist teachings through a modern, rational, and socially engaged lens. It emphasized:

·         Social justice: Buddhism as a tool to dismantle caste oppression and create equality.

·         Ethical modernism: Rejecting superstitions and ritualism, focusing on rational ethics.

·         Empowerment: Offering Dalits a dignified identity separate from Hindu caste structures.

Ambedkar’s Navayana movement transformed Buddhism into a liberation movement rather than a purely spiritual tradition. It stressed the Buddha’s teachings on compassion and equality, aligning them with contemporary struggles for human rights and dignity.

The Impact of Navayana Buddhism

Ambedkar’s revival had profound effects on Indian society:

·         Mass conversions: Several waves of Dalit conversions occurred, particularly in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, creating a sizeable Buddhist population in these states.

·         Identity formation: Buddhism became an assertion of social identity for marginalized communities, empowering them politically and culturally.

·         Educational and cultural initiatives: Buddhist organizations founded schools, temples, and centers that promote both religious and secular education, intertwining Buddhist philosophy with social upliftment.

Today, Maharashtra remains the heartland of Ambedkarite Buddhism, with communities actively celebrating Ambedkar Jayanti (his birth anniversary) and Ashoka Vijayadashami (commemorating the day Ambedkar embraced Buddhism). These communities maintain Buddhist temples, publish literature, and participate in national political discourse.

Buddhism as a Minority Religion Today

Despite this revival, Buddhism remains a minority religion in India, accounting for approximately 0.7% of the population according to the latest census figures. Most Buddhists in India belong to either the Ambedkarite Navayana tradition or the Himalayan Vajrayana schools.

The Buddhist population is geographically concentrated:

·         Maharashtra: The largest concentration, especially in Mumbai, Pune, and Nagpur.

·         Uttar Pradesh: Near Sarnath, where Buddha gave his first sermon.

·         Himalayan states: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh, where Tibetan Buddhism thrives.

·         Northeast India: Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and parts of Assam.

Pilgrimage and Cultural Heritage

India’s Buddhist heritage continues to attract millions of pilgrims and tourists worldwide. Sites like Bodh Gaya (where Buddha attained enlightenment), Sarnath (site of the first sermon), and Kushinagar (place of Buddha’s parinirvana) are not only religious centers but also UNESCO World Heritage sites. These places have witnessed restoration efforts by the Indian government and international Buddhist organizations.

Annual festivals and pilgrimages reinforce Buddhism’s cultural presence in India. The revivalist movement has also rekindled interest in Buddhist philosophy, meditation, and non-violent ethics among Indians and the global community.

Challenges and Future Prospects

The revival of Buddhism in India faces several challenges:

·         Minority status: Buddhists in India remain a small community compared to the majority Hindus and Muslims.

·         Economic and educational disparities: Many Buddhist communities, especially Dalit Buddhists, continue to struggle with poverty and limited access to education.

·         Religious tensions: Some revivalist efforts have faced political opposition or misunderstanding.

However, the resilience and adaptability of Buddhism in India continue to inspire hope. The global interest in mindfulness, meditation, and Buddhist philosophy also opens new avenues for Buddhism to reconnect with Indian society and contribute to its spiritual and cultural landscape.

Buddhism’s revival in modern India, notably through the Navayana movement initiated by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, represents a powerful story of religious, social, and cultural regeneration. Though Buddhism remains a minority religion in India, its legacy and influence persist through dedicated communities, historic pilgrimage sites, and renewed interest in its core ethical teachings. The revival stands as a testament to Buddhism’s enduring appeal and its potential to inspire social justice and spiritual awakening in the contemporary era.

Conclusion

Buddhism’s journey in India is a profound saga of spiritual innovation, imperial patronage, gradual decline, and resilient revival. Originating in the 6th century BCE with the enlightenment of Siddhartha Gautama—the Buddha—it offered a revolutionary vision of liberation through ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom. Its early growth was marked by royal support, especially under Emperor Ashoka, whose patronage spread Buddhist teachings across the subcontinent and beyond.

The golden period of Buddhism witnessed the flourishing of monastic universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, prolific intellectual and artistic achievements, and the deep embedding of Buddhist values in Indian society. This era established Buddhism as a major world religion and a beacon of philosophical inquiry and compassion.

However, starting around the early medieval period, Buddhism faced multifaceted challenges that led to its decline in India. The revival and reform of Hinduism reasserted Vedic traditions and absorbed many Buddhist ideas, diminishing Buddhism’s distinct appeal. Simultaneously, the decline of royal patronage—due to political fragmentation and the rise of new kingdoms—left Buddhist institutions financially and politically vulnerable. Over time, institutional decay and internal corruption weakened monastic discipline and reputation, eroding popular trust.

The destructive impact of invasions and the targeting of Buddhist monasteries by invading forces, especially during the medieval period, dealt severe blows to the physical infrastructure and the continuity of Buddhist learning. Additionally, the absence of a strong lay social base and dwindling community support meant Buddhism lost its grassroots presence. Many followers gradually returned to Hinduism or other emerging religious movements. Finally, Buddhism’s geographical shift to countries such as Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and beyond meant its core centers of learning and practice moved out of India, further weakening its domestic foothold.

Despite these setbacks, Buddhism never completely vanished from India. It survived in pockets—especially in the Himalayan regions—and through its enduring heritage sites like Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar, which continue to attract pilgrims worldwide. The most significant modern revival came with the efforts of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in the mid-20th century. By embracing Buddhism as a means to combat caste oppression, Ambedkar transformed it into a movement of social justice and empowerment for millions of Dalits. This Navayana form of Buddhism emphasized rationality, equality, and human dignity, renewing Buddhism’s relevance in modern India.

Today, Buddhism remains a minority faith, practiced by about 0.7% of India’s population, yet its influence resonates through its philosophical teachings, meditation practices, and cultural legacy. Pilgrimage sites and Buddhist festivals keep the tradition alive, while renewed scholarly and popular interest in Buddhist ethics and mindfulness further contributes to its revival.

In sum, the story of Buddhism in India is one of cyclical transformation—rising from humble beginnings to great heights, enduring decline under complex social and political forces, and undergoing meaningful revival in modern times. This dynamic history reflects Buddhism’s capacity to adapt and inspire across centuries, affirming its vital place in India’s spiritual and cultural landscape.

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